Relevant Research
Academic Failure
Double Jeopardy: How Third-Grade Reading Skills and Poverty Influence High
School Graduation
Donald J. Hernandez, Annie E. Casey Foundation – This study examines the
long-term impact of third-grade reading proficiency on high school
graduation rates, emphasizing the compounded risk for students from low-income backgrounds.
Parents 2023: Go Beyond Grades
Learning Heroes, Big Village, Edge Research – A survey analyzing parental perceptions of their children’s academic progress and preparedness, highlighting disparities between parental confidence and actual student performance.
Assessments
Educational Accountability and State ESSA Plans
John Portz & Nicholas Beauchamp – This study analyzes how states adapted their educational accountability measures under the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), identifying patterns in state approaches and the political and economic factors influencing policy decisions.
Budgeting
Defining Productivity in Education: Issues and Illustrations
Eric A. Hanushek & Elizabeth Ettema – This study examines how productivity in K-12 education has declined over four decades, exploring various methods for measuring efficiency and their implications for educational policy.
Public Education at a Crossroads: A Comprehensive Look at K-12 Resources
and Outcomes
Aaron Garth Smith, Jordan Campbell, & Christian Barnard – A nationwide analysis of K-12 education funding, staffing, and student performance, highlighting inefficiencies in spending and the lack of correlation between increased funding and academic success.
The Inequitable Effects of Teacher Layoffs: What We Know and Can Do
Matthew A. Kraft & Joshua F. Bleiberg – This research brief examines the widespread impact of teacher layoffs following economic downturns, revealing how seniority-based layoffs disproportionately affect teachers of color and students in disadvantaged schools.
CRT, DEI & Racial Justice
Equitable Grading Debate
A report from the Thomas B. Fordham Institute critiques grading policies aimed at equity, arguing they may lower academic standards, increase grade inflation, and ultimately harm students they intend to help.
Public Opinion on Education & Race
A national poll examines voter perspectives on K-12 education, race, and gender instruction, revealing concerns over increased political influence in schools and a divide on issues like Critical Race Theory and social activism in the curriculum.
Racial Disparities in School Discipline
Research from the Institute for Family Studies explores how family structure, rather than just racial bias, plays a significant role in school suspension disparities, highlighting the impact of single- parent households and economic factors.
Restoring School Safety
A report from AEI critiques “restorative justice” policies in schools, arguing they undermine teacher authority, reduce discipline enforcement, and contribute to unsafe learning environments, particularly affecting student behavior and classroom management.
Curriculum
10-14% HS Teachers Using Quality Materials (RAND, 2020)
This report examines the extent to which high school teachers are using high-quality instructional materials in their classrooms, analyzing barriers to adoption and the impact on student learning outcomes.
Alabama Numeracy Act Requires 1 Hour Math Daily
This document details the Alabama Numeracy Act, which mandates that schools dedicate at least one hour daily to mathematics instruction, aiming to improve math proficiency and close achievement gaps.
Align PD & Curriculum (Carnegie, 2020)
This paper argues for better alignment between professional development programs and curriculum standards, emphasizing that teacher training should directly support instructional materials to enhance student achievement.
Aspen Institute: Class Size vs. Curriculum (40x Better)
A study from the Aspen Institute comparing the effects of reducing class sizes to improving curriculum quality, concluding that curriculum enhancements can have up to 40 times the impact on student learning outcomes.
Automatic Math Enrollment Policy Types
This document categorizes various policies for automatic student enrollment in advanced math courses, analyzing their effectiveness in increasing participation and achievement among underrepresented students.
CKS Significant Benefit on Reading Scores (Brown University, 2023)
Research from Brown University demonstrating that Core Knowledge Sequence (CKS) curricula significantly improve student reading scores, particularly for disadvantaged students.
Classwork Unengaging, Below Grade Level, Fixing Helps Laggards (New
Teacher Project, 2018)
A study revealing that much of the classwork assigned to students is unengaging and below grade level, with recommendations on how increasing rigor can improve learning outcomes, especially for struggling students.
The Value of Curriculum: Center for American Progress (40x Better than Class
Size)
This report from the Center for American Progress argues that investing in high-quality curriculum has a significantly greater impact on student learning than reducing class sizes. It reviews multiple studies showing how rigorous curriculum adoption can improve educational outcomes, particularly for disadvantaged students.
Content-Poor Curriculum Hurts the Poor the Most
This document highlights how low-quality and unchallenging curricula disproportionately impact students from lower-income backgrounds. It argues that a strong knowledge-based curriculum is essential for closing achievement gaps and ensuring equal educational opportunities.
The Hidden Value of Curriculum Reform
This report examines how high-quality curriculum impacts student achievement and highlights how curriculum reform is a cost-effective educational investment.
Core Knowledge Helps Disadvantaged Students the Most – Hirsch (2006)
This paper by E.D. Hirsch explores how the Core Knowledge curriculum significantly benefits disadvantaged students by providing structured, knowledge-rich content that enhances literacy and comprehension. Hirsch advocates for a broad-based knowledge foundation as a key driver of educational equity.
Cultural Literacy – E.D. Hirsch (1983)
This foundational work by Hirsch introduces the concept of “cultural literacy,” arguing that shared knowledge is crucial for reading comprehension and social participation. The paper discusses how a common knowledge base strengthens communication, civic engagement, and educational equity.
Curriculum Helps, but Not Implemented – NIET (2020)
This report from the National Institute for Excellence in Teaching (NIET) examines how high-quality curriculum is often adopted but not effectively implemented. It highlights challenges such as inadequate teacher training, misalignment with assessments, and administrative barriers.
History Professors 33-1 Democrat-Republican Ratio – NCA (2017)
This analysis discusses the ideological imbalance in university history departments, showing that history professors lean overwhelmingly Democratic. The report examines potential impacts on curriculum, pedagogy, and academic freedom in higher education.
Knowledge-Focused Curriculum is Better Than Skills-Based – Hirsch (2006)
This paper by Hirsch critiques the skills-based approach in education, arguing that a focus on building knowledge is more effective in promoting critical thinking, retention, and literacy. The study draws on cognitive science to support the benefits of a knowledge-rich curriculum.
Knowledge Helps Retention, Thinking, and More – Willingham (2006, AFT)
Daniel Willingham, a cognitive scientist, explains how knowledge enhances memory retention, reasoning skills, and problem-solving abilities. He presents research demonstrating that knowledge acquisition is fundamental to higher-order thinking and academic success.
Math Textbook Effectiveness – Harvard (2019)
This study from Harvard examines the impact of different math textbooks on student achievement. It finds that certain textbooks significantly improve learning outcomes, particularly when accompanied by teacher training and proper implementation.
More States Using HQIM – RAND (2023)
This RAND report explores the growing adoption of High-Quality Instructional Materials (HQIM) across U.S. states. It highlights the benefits of HQIM in improving student outcomes, along with challenges in implementation and teacher training.
Narrative Improves Recall – Willingham (2004)
Daniel Willingham discusses how presenting information in a narrative format significantly enhances memory retention and comprehension. The paper emphasizes the role of storytelling in effective teaching strategies.
Need for Background Knowledge – AFT (2006)
This American Federation of Teachers (AFT) report argues that background knowledge is crucial for reading comprehension and academic success. It supports a content-rich curriculum over skills-based instruction.
Pearson’s Radical Leftist Materials – Heritage (2023)
A critical analysis from the Heritage Foundation on Pearson’s educational materials, highlighting concerns about ideological bias in textbooks and instructional content. The report suggests that Pearson’s materials promote progressive viewpoints under the guise of education.
Religiosity Helps Academics – Stanford (2018)
A study from Stanford University examining the positive correlation between religiosity and academic achievement. It suggests that students who engage in religious activities tend to perform better academically due to discipline, moral framework, and community support.
The Science of Math: Objective Standards vs. Pseudoscience Trends (2023)
This paper critiques recent trends in math education that prioritize subjective or ideological approaches over objective standards. It advocates for evidence-based instruction grounded in mathematical rigor.
The Science of Reading Works – FSU (2021)
Florida State University’s research on the effectiveness of the “Science of Reading” approach. The study supports structured phonics and knowledge-based reading instruction, demonstrating its impact on literacy rates.
Social Studies Helps Reading, Especially for Low-Income & ELL Students – Fordham (2020)
A report from the Fordham Institute showing how a strong social studies curriculum can improve reading skills, particularly for English Language Learners (ELL) and students from low-income backgrounds.
Teachers Need Structured Curriculum & Revamped Planning – Pondiscio (2023)
Robert Pondiscio argues that teachers need a well-structured curriculum and more efficient lesson planning processes. The paper discusses how reducing teacher autonomy in curriculum selection can lead to better student outcomes.
W.E.B. Du Bois & Horace Mann Favored Classical Education – Manhattan Institute (2021)
This paper explores how influential thinkers like W.E.B. Du Bois and Horace Mann supported classical education, advocating for rigorous academic instruction in core subjects as a means of empowerment.
Elections
NSBA School Board Member Election Poll (2018)
This report from the National School Boards Association (NSBA) examines school board elections, finding that 75% of races are conducted with campaign budgets under $1,000. It highlights the low-cost, low-turnout nature of school board races and the implications for education policy.
Off-Cycle Elections Favor Unions – FGA (2024)
This report from the Foundation for Government Accountability (FGA) argues that holding school board elections off-cycle benefits teachers’ unions by reducing voter turnout. The analysis suggests that aligning these elections with general elections would increase voter participation and reduce union influence.
Republican vs. Democrat Education Policy Favorability Poll – Democrats for Education Reform (2023)
This polling analysis explores public opinion on education policies favored by Republicans and Democrats. It highlights shifting attitudes on school choice, funding priorities, and curriculum control, with insights into bipartisan and partisan divides on education reform.
Top School Districts with On-Cycle Elections, Most Active School Board Members – Fordham Institute (2014)
This study investigates the effects of school board election timing on board member engagement and policy priorities. It finds that on-cycle elections, where board races coincide with general elections, lead to greater voter participation and more active school board members.
Voters Vote Party Slate Locally – Manhattan Institute (2024)
This report examines trends in local elections, showing that voters increasingly align their choices with national party preferences even in nonpartisan school board races. The study discusses the implications of increased partisanship in local education governance.
Gender Identity
No Consensus on Dysphoria Care – Cass Review (2022)
This report by Dr. Hilary Cass critiques the prevailing medical approach to gender dysphoria, arguing that there is no strong clinical consensus on the best treatment pathways. The review highlights concerns about the long-term effects of puberty blockers and cross-sex hormones, emphasizing the need for more rigorous research and caution in medical interventions.
Title IX Gender Identity Rule Not Enforceable – AEI (2023)
This analysis from the American Enterprise Institute discusses the legal implications of the Biden administration’s reinterpretation of Title IX to include gender identity. It argues that the rule lacks statutory basis and is unlikely to withstand legal challenges, especially given recent court rulings limiting federal overreach in defining sex-based protections.
Trans Affirming Care Without Parental Consent Increases Suicide – Heritage (2022)
This study from The Heritage Foundation examines the impact of transgender medical interventions on youth mental health. It finds that states allowing minors to access gender-affirming care without parental consent have seen increases in youth suicide rates, challenging the common assertion that such interventions universally reduce mental health risks.
Governance
SB Coaches Improve Outcomes – Crabill (2022)
This report examines how school board coaching can enhance governance and improve student outcomes. It highlights how structured coaching for school board members leads to better decision-making, stronger strategic planning, and a focus on measurable results.
School Board History, Duties, and Background – Mike Ford
This document provides an overview of the historical evolution of school boards, their primary duties, and governance structures. It discusses how school boards function, their impact on education policy, and key challenges they face in modern governance.
School Board Ideologues Do Not Improve Governance – Brookings (2017)
This analysis explores how ideological extremism on school boards affects governance effectiveness. The study finds that boards dominated by ideological agendas tend to be less effective at improving student outcomes and maintaining functional governance structures.
School Board Strategic Planning & Cooperation Improves Learning – Mike Ford (2013)
This research paper argues that strategic planning and cooperation among school board members lead to better student performance. It emphasizes the importance of long-term vision, collaboration, and data-driven decision-making.
School Board-Superintendent Relations: Principles for Effective Governance – Hanover Research
This document outlines best practices for fostering a productive relationship between school boards and superintendents. It stresses the need for clear communication, role clarity, and collaboration to ensure smooth district operations.
School Turnaround Analysis – Rockefeller Institute (2019)
This report analyzes various school turnaround efforts, focusing on governance models that have successfully improved underperforming schools. It provides case studies of districts that have implemented reforms leading to measurable student achievement gains.
State Department of Education & Board of Education Governance Models – ECS (2013)
This report reviews different governance models used by state education departments and boards of education. It highlights how varying structures impact policy implementation, accountability, and overall education system performance.
Instruction
9 Principles of Instruction – Rosenshine (2012)
This paper outlines nine fundamental principles of effective teaching, based on cognitive science research. Rosenshine emphasizes structured practice, questioning techniques, and explicit instruction as key strategies to enhance student learning.
90% of Teachers Don’t Think Screen Time Helps – Bay View Analytics (2024)
A survey of educators reveals widespread skepticism about the benefits of digital learning tools. The report highlights concerns over screen time’s impact on student engagement, comprehension, and traditional learning methods.
Advanced Education Recommendations – Fordham (2022)
This report provides policy recommendations for improving advanced education opportunities. It advocates for rigorous coursework, early identification of high-achieving students, and better access to gifted programs.
Differentiated Instruction and Its Impact on Outcomes – Fordham Institute (July 2022)
This report from the Fordham Institute evaluates the effectiveness of differentiated instruction in improving student outcomes. It discusses challenges in implementation and highlights the limited evidence supporting its widespread use.
Ed Tech Overreach Timeline – Environmental Progress (2024)
This timeline documents the increasing influence of educational technology in classrooms, detailing its potential benefits and significant drawbacks. It highlights concerns about data privacy, screen time, and the effectiveness of tech-driven learning models.
Full-Day Kindergarten Gains Fade – Early Childhood Development (2015)
This study finds that the initial academic benefits of full-day kindergarten programs tend to diminish by third grade. It suggests that sustained instructional support is necessary to maintain early learning gains.
Grade Inflation on the Rise – ACT (2022)
This ACT report tracks the growing trend of grade inflation in U.S. high schools. It warns that rising GPAs do not necessarily reflect increased student achievement and may have long-term consequences for college readiness.
How to Close Advanced Education Gaps – Fordham Institute (2023)
This paper outlines strategies to close the opportunity gap in advanced education programs. It argues for improved identification of gifted students from underrepresented backgrounds and better access to rigorous coursework.
Schools of Education Ignore Research on Teacher-Led Instruction – American Scholar, Wexler (2024)
This article critiques teacher training programs for neglecting research that supports explicit, teacher-led instruction. It advocates for a shift away from unstructured, student-centered approaches in favor of direct instruction.
Teacher Incentive Pay Improves Performance – NBER (2023)
This study from the National Bureau of Economic Research examines the impact of performance-based pay for teachers. It finds that structured incentive programs lead to improved student outcomes and greater teacher retention.
Teacher-Led Explicit Instruction Proven by Research – USC et al. (2012)
This research synthesis presents strong evidence supporting explicit, teacher-led instruction as the most effective way to enhance student learning. It contrasts this approach with inquiry-based and discovery learning models.
Teacher Merit Pay Works – Kansas State, Vanderbilt, UNC (2021)
A collaborative study from Kansas State, Vanderbilt, and UNC examines the effects of merit-based teacher pay programs. It concludes that well-designed merit pay structures lead to higher student achievement and increased teacher motivation.
Teacher Observation Correlates to & Improves Academic Scores – Union University (2019)
This research finds a strong correlation between structured teacher observations and student achievement. The study suggests that well-implemented observation programs can enhance instructional quality and student outcomes.
Teacher Stress is 2x Pre-Pandemic Levels – RAND (2022)
This report details the dramatic increase in teacher stress post-pandemic. Factors such as workload, student behavior, and policy changes contribute to burnout and reduced job satisfaction among educators.
Teacher-Led Instruction is Better Than Student-Led – Educational Psychology (2010)
This study compares teacher-led and student-led instructional models, finding that direct instruction from teachers leads to better academic outcomes, particularly in foundational subjects like math and reading.
Teacher Incentive Pay Improves Performance – NBER (2023)
Research from the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) demonstrates that performance-based pay for teachers can lead to higher student achievement. The study discusses the effectiveness of different incentive structures.
Teacher-Led Instruction Works Best – Educational Psychology (2010)
A companion study reinforcing that teacher-directed learning strategies outperform student-centered models. It highlights the importance of clear instruction, structured lessons, and active teacher involvement.
Teachers Need Structured Curriculum & Revamped Planning – Pondiscio (2023)
This paper argues that teachers benefit from structured curricula and detailed lesson plans. It critiques the expectation that teachers should create their own curriculum and suggests that clear frameworks improve instructional effectiveness.
Labor & Teachers
50 State Public Union Laws – Commonwealth 2024
This report provides a comprehensive overview of public sector union laws across all 50 states, analyzing their impact on labor relations, education policy, and government accountability.
95+% Teachers Union Donations to Democrats
This document highlights political contributions made by teachers’ unions, showing that over 95% of their donations historically go to Democratic candidates, raising concerns about ideological bias in education policy.
All State CTE Teacher Licensing Regulations (2023)
A detailed review of Career and Technical Education (CTE) teacher licensing requirements across states, examining variations in certification pathways, alternative licensure, and the regulatory landscape for vocational education.
Collective Bargaining Harms Student Outcomes – EdNext (2016)
This study explores the negative impact of collective bargaining agreements on student performance, arguing that rigid teacher contracts hinder flexibility, accountability, and educational effectiveness.
Mackinac Michigan Teacher Labor Study (March 2024)
A deep dive into Michigan’s teacher labor market, focusing on union influence, teacher shortages, salary trends, and how labor policies affect educational outcomes and workforce sustainability.
Off-Cycle Elections Favor Unions – FGA (2024)
This analysis explains how off-cycle school board elections disproportionately benefit teachers’ unions by ensuring lower voter turnout, allowing union-backed candidates to dominate decision-making in education governance.
Spending Up, Teacher Pay Down, Reason 2024
This analysis finds that despite rising per-pupil spending in public education, teacher salaries have stagnated or declined in many states, attributing the disparity to administrative bloat and misallocation of funds.
Teacher Apprenticeships Recommendations, IRG 2023
This report outlines strategies for expanding teacher apprenticeship programs, advocating for alternative pathways to licensure that provide hands-on experience and reduce barriers to entering the teaching profession.
Teacher Layoffs Inequity, MIT 2022
This study examines the inequitable distribution of teacher layoffs, finding that budget-driven reductions disproportionately affect schools serving disadvantaged students, exacerbating achievement gaps.
Teacher Licensure Reform, Federalist Society 2024
This report critiques current teacher licensure policies, arguing that stringent requirements limit the talent pool and recommending deregulation to allow more qualified individuals to enter the profession.
Teacher Licensure Reform, WILL 2021
This analysis from the Wisconsin Institute for Law & Liberty (WILL) explores the negative impact of rigid teacher licensure rules on recruitment and retention, proposing reforms to create more flexible certification pathways.
Union Endorsement Boosts Elections by 6% but Hurts Academic Performance, Manhattan Institute 2023
This study finds that union-endorsed school board candidates receive an average 6% electoral advantage but that their policies often lead to declining academic performance due to prioritizing union interests over student outcomes.
Unions Extended COVID Lockdowns, Manhattan Institute
This report investigates how teachers’ unions played a key role in prolonging COVID-19 school closures, highlighting the long-term academic and social consequences for students, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds.
Library & Material Appropriateness
Brown Library Study (78% Elementary & Middle School LGB Books, 100% Trans, 42% Christian Fiction)
This study analyzes the content of school libraries, finding that 78% of elementary and middle school libraries included LGBTQ-themed books, 100% had books about transgender topics, while only 42% contained Christian fiction. The report examines the balance of perspectives in school library collections.
Cato – School Libraries 8x Likelier to Have Political Bias
This report from the Cato Institute examines the ideological biases present in school library collections. It finds that school libraries are eight times more likely to include materials aligned with progressive viewpoints compared to conservative perspectives.
PEN Book Ban Lies – AEI (2023)
This American Enterprise Institute (AEI) report critiques claims made by PEN America about widespread book bans in schools. It argues that many of the supposed bans are misrepresented, with books often remaining available in other
Mental & Reproductive Health
57% Female Depression, 30% Serious Suicidal Ideation – CDC 2023
This CDC report highlights alarming mental health trends among female adolescents, with 57% experiencing persistent feelings of sadness or hopelessness and 30% reporting serious suicidal ideation. The study emphasizes the growing mental health crisis among youth, particularly post-pandemic.
SEL Unproven Effectiveness & Has Health & Privacy Problems – Pioneer Institute 2019
This report critiques Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) programs, arguing that there is limited evidence proving their effectiveness. It also raises concerns over potential health risks and privacy violations due to data collection on students.
Sexual Risk Avoidance (Sex Ed) – Family Research Council
This paper advocates for a Sexual Risk Avoidance (SRA) approach in sex education, promoting abstinence and character development as key strategies for reducing teen pregnancy and STDs. The FRC argues that SRA provides a more comprehensive and moral framework than comprehensive sex education models.
Success Sequence (Alternative Sex Ed) Popularity – AEI 2021
The American Enterprise Institute (AEI) explores the “Success Sequence,” which emphasizes finishing education, securing employment, and getting married before having children. The study finds broad public support for this approach as a means to improve economic stability and social mobility.
Parental Control
Parental Involvement & Academic Success – APA 2019
This study from the American Psychological Association (APA) emphasizes the strong correlation between parental involvement and student academic success. It highlights how active parental engagement in education leads to better grades, improved behavior, and higher graduation rates.
Trans Affirming Care Without Parental Consent Increases Suicide – Heritage 2022
This Heritage Foundation report examines the effects of transgender-affirming medical interventions for minors without parental consent. It argues that such policies correlate with increased suicide rates and suggests that parental involvement is crucial in mental health and medical decisions.
Religious Liberty & Free Speech
Religiosity Helps Academics – Stanford (2018)
This study from Stanford University examines the positive correlation between religious participation and academic performance. It finds that students who engage in religious activities tend to have better educational outcomes, higher levels of discipline, and greater social support, contributing to their success in school.
Student & Teacher First Amendment Rights – AEI (May 2024)
This report from the American Enterprise Institute explores the legal protections for students’ and teachers’ free speech rights in schools. It highlights key court cases and policies affecting religious expression, political speech, and academic freedom in educational settings.
Safety & Discipline
Armed Teachers Reduce School Shootings
A study from the Social Science Research Network (2018) finds that schools with armed teachers experience fewer shootings and faster response times during active shooter incidents.
Discipline Works & Is Not Racially Motivated
An AEI (2021) report challenges the narrative that school discipline policies are racially biased, arguing that behavioral differences explain disparities rather than systemic discrimination.
In-School Suspension Is Not Better Than Expulsion for Academics
A JELPS (2023) study indicates that in-school suspension does not provide significant academic benefits compared to expulsion and may not be the best intervention for student behavior.
Parents Support Arming Teachers
A Rasmussen (2022) poll shows strong parental support for allowing teachers to carry firearms in schools as a safety measure.
Study: Cell Phone Bans Increase Student Performance
A 2015 study demonstrates that banning cell phones in schools leads to improved student performance, particularly among low-achieving students.
Why Discipline Discrepancies Are Not Race-Based
This analysis argues that racial disparities in school discipline are primarily driven by behavioral differences rather than discrimination.
School Choice
Charters Increase District Efficiency & Per-Pupil Funding – Fordham (2023)
This report from the Fordham Institute examines how charter schools impact traditional public school districts, finding that they increase district efficiency and improve per-pupil spending. The study argues that competition from charters drives resource allocation improvements in district schools.
Charters Outperform, Do Not Cherry-Pick Students, CMOs Perform Best – Stanford (2023)
This study from Stanford University dispels the myth that charter schools cherry-pick students. It provides evidence that charters outperform traditional public schools and that Charter Management Organizations (CMOs) show the strongest results in student achievement.
School Choice More Effective Than Class Size Reduction & Increased Spending – University of Arkansas (2021)
This University of Arkansas study compares the effectiveness of school choice programs with other education reforms like reducing class sizes and increasing spending. The findings suggest that school choice policies yield significantly higher academic gains than these alternatives.
LA Open Enrollment Increased Student Achievement – University of Chicago (2023)
This study evaluates the impact of open enrollment policies in Los Angeles, concluding that expanding school choice through open enrollment led to measurable improvements in student achievement across various demographic groups.
School Choice Improves NAEP Scores – University of Arkansas (2023)
This analysis links school choice policies to improved performance on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). The study finds that states with robust school choice programs tend to see higher academic achievement across multiple grade levels.